Theoretical modeling of biosensor assemblies represents an additional area. Substantial scope exists for research (and associated investment) that addresses the need for point-of-care diagnostics in the healthcare setting. of emphasis in research, most notable is the strong role that nanotechnology, and to a certain extent biotechnology, plays in research regarding biosensor construction. Stronger emphasis on collaboration between scientists in theoretical modelling, nanomaterials application and or relevant stakeholders in the specific field (e.g., food or health monitoring) and researchers in biosensor design may help evolve focused research efforts towards development and deployment of low-cost biosensors. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a measure of economic productivity: most of the countries present in sub-Saharan Africa generate far less GDP than developed nations; accordingly, they tend to have LY2979165 significantly less money available for healthcare, both at public and private spending levels, as exemplified in the countries presented in Table 1. A large sector of the population is either located in remote rural areas without ready access to traditional medical care, or reside in informal peri-urban settlements with variable access to sanitation and potable water technologies. These factors, combined with the lower proportional public funding into scientific research (Table 1), are realities that drive the current research interest for on-site, cost-effective sensors capable of routine, sensitive and selective detection of a range of targeted compounds present in humans, food, water and the environment. The diffused nature of the healthcare institutions present in developing countries and the particular challenges those bring for sensor development is a feature that drives much of the approach to research. However, by the same token, many areas of Africa, and certainly South Africa, are blends of both developed and developing countries, where access to state-of-the-art health screening technologies match or better those in more developed economies. Tellingly, South Africa (Table 1), possessing the highest estimated annual GDP of sub-Saharan countries (6886 United States Dollars, USD, as measured in LY2979165 2013) and the highest total health expenditure LY2979165 (593 USD), still has over a quarter of its population living on less than 2 USD per day, highlighting the economic inequalities present in the country and the concomitant differences in access to available healthcare. This dichotomy is one that presents African scientists across the continent, and certainly in southern Africa, with a challenge to approach research such that it caters for a wider potential, global market (and bacteria, measurable as bacterial luciferase operon expression (bioluminescence)H2O2(HRP)Maize tassel/MWCNTs (Voltammetry)4 M[11]Inhibition TNFRSF8 of HRP activity, measurable as electrocatalytic reduction of H2O2H2O2(HRP)Induced nanofibril PANI/PV sulphonate polymer (Amperometry)30 M[12]Inhibition of HRP activity, measurable as electrocatalytic reduction of H2O2Pb2+, Cd2+ (HRP)Maize tassel MWCNTs (Voltammetry)2.5 g/L (Pb2+)[13]Inhibition of HRP activity, measurable as electrocatalytic reduction of H2O2spp.)pLUX plasmid (Bioluminescence)n.r.[20]Wastewater strength measured by increase in metabolic activity of transgenic bacteria, as described for Ref. [10], aboveDiazinon (HRP)PtE/PANI/ASA (Voltammetry) [21]Inhibition of HRP activity, measurable as electrocatalytic reduction of H2O2Glyphosate (HRP)AuE/PDMA/PSS1.70 g/L[22]Inhibition of HRP activity, measurable as electrocatalytic reduction of H2O2Glyphosate and aminomethylphosphonic acid (HRP)AuE/PDMA/PSS (Amperometry)0.16 g/L and 1 g/L, respectively[23]Inhibition of HRP activity, measurable as electrocatalytic reduction of H2O2Indinavir (Cytochrome P450-3A4)PtE/didodecyldimethylammonium bromide vesicle/BSA (Amperometry)61.5 g/L[24]Inhibition of cytochrome activity, measurable as direct electron transfer from cytochromes in presence of O2.l-Tyrosine (Tyrosinase)BDD, PANI entrapped (SWV) [25]Electrocatalytic oxidation of l-tyrosine in the presence of tyrosinase.Organophosphate pesticides (AChE)Au/MBT/PANI/AChE/PVAc (Voltammetry)0.018 nM (Chlorpyrifos)[26]Inhibition of AChE activity, as described for Ref [18] aboveOrganophosphates (AChE)AuE/MBT/PANI/AChE/PVAc (amperometry)0.147 ppb (Diazinon)[27]Inhibition of AChE activity, as described for Ref [18] abovePhenolic compounds (Laccase)GCE/BSA and glutaraldehyde (Amperometry)~M range[28]Production of enzyme-catalysed oxidation products, measurable LY2979165 as electroactive compoundsPhenolic compounds (Laccase)GCE/Graphite paste (DPV)n.r.[29]Production of enzyme-catalysed oxidation products, measurable as electroactive compoundsRifampicin (cytochrome P450-2E1)AuE/PVP-AgNPs/poly(8-anilino-1-naphthalene sulphonic acid (DPV)~50 nM[30]Electro-reduction of the cytochrome-rifampicin complex, driving catalysisUrea (Urease)ZrO2 NPs-PPI (Amperometry) 0.01 mM[31]Detection of urease-catalysed production of NH3, detectable by anodic detection of NH3.sp. bacteria)GCE2 CFU/100 mL[35]Anodic detection of more sensitive microbial metabolite from enzyme-catalysed product of p-nitrophenyl–d-glucuronideCreatine and Creatinine (creatinase, creatininase sarcosine oxidase)Monocrystalline Diamond Paste (Amperometry)1 10?3 fM[36]Amperometric detection of enzyme-catalysed generation of H2O2 from creatine degradation; conversion of creatinine to creatine.Entantiomers of enalapril, ramipril and pentopril (l-amino acid ) oxidaseCarbon paste (Amperometry) [37]Not reportedEthambutol (cytochrome P450-E21)AuE/poly (8-anilino-1-napthalene sulphonic acid)/Ag NPs (Amperometry, voltammetry)0.7 M[38]Electro-reduction of the cytochrome-ethambutol complex, driving further catalysis, measurable as the reduction of Fe3+ centre of the cytochromeFluoxetine (Cytochrome P450)GCE/PANI (Amperometry)~1 nM[39]Cathodic detection of complex-catalysed product of Fluoxetine.Glucose (Glucose oxidase)PPI dendrimer/GCE (Amperometry)0.1 mM[40]Anodic detection of enzyme-generated H2O2 in presence of substrateGlucose (Glucose oxidase)GCE/Co(II)phthalocyanine-cobalt(II) tetraphenylporphyrin pentamer complex (Amperometry)10 M[41]Anodic.